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This article is reproduced by permission from Appendix A of the 1970 edition of The Keyword Concordance. It does not appear in the current edition, which is bound with the Concordant Literal New Testament. See also: Figures of Speech by Peter Wade, Figures of Speech by E.W. Bullinger, and Appendix 6 of the Companion Bible.
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Figures of Speech
by A.E. Knoch
God, Who studded the sky with jewels and carpeted the earth with
colors, has written His revelation in language which reflects the beauties of His visible
creation. The diction of the East and of the Scriptures is full of fine figures, over
which we walk with ruthless tread, seldom stopping to admire the blooms beneath our feet.
It is the voice of feeling as well as fact. Nor is its beauty merely ornamental. Unless
our eyes are opened to their presence and we feel their force, we may fail to enter
beneath the surface of bare facts, into the heart of God's truth, and be led astray by
mere externals.
NOT TRUE AS TO FACT
It is startling to realize that much of God's Word is not
literally true. Some of its most precious and important statements simply cannot be taken
as they stand. "God is light" is not an actual fact. Literally stated, He is, in
the spiritual sphere, in some ways like light in the physical realm. But how much more
forceful and beautiful to condense all this into a short and striking sentence, even if it
is not strictly correct! This should open our eyes to realize that not everything in the
Scriptures must be taken literally. When the Lord told His disciples that Lazarus had
found repose and that He was about to wake him out of sleep, they took His word literally,
which was misleading. So He told them frankly that Lazarus had died. By this figure, which
was not true in fact, He had foreshadowed the great truth that Lazarus' death was
like taking a nap, for He would rouse him from the tomb. We should be on our guard when
Scripture states that which cannot be literallytrue. Such words are not false, but figurative.
Because the Scriptures unfold to us the metaphysical and the spiritual, for which we have
no organs of perception, these are usually spoken of in terms of the physical and the
material. Hence we should expect to find many figures in God's revelation. Words used
literally of things in the lower sphere, accessible to our soulish senses, are needed in a
superior sense for that which belongs to a higher sphere. Such conceptions as light and
darkness, life and death, high and low, are freely used as figures. In fact, many have
been so often used in this fashion that we mistakenly speak of the figurative usage as a
special "meaning," when it is really a faded figure.
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IMPORTANCE IN INTERPRETATION
Of the vast importance of figures of speech in interpretation, there
can be no question. In the Reformation a single metaphor, "this is My body," led
to conflicts and divisions which would never have arisen if there had been even an
elementary knowledge of figurative language. On some subjects, the Scriptures seem to
contradict themselves, simply because figures are taken for facts. When the figure is
recognized, the conflict vanishes. An investigation will show that differences of
interpretation occur especially often with words which are frequently used figuratively.
As a rule this has affected their literal significance and clouded the passages in which
they appear. In such cases, if the literal is sharply distinguished, the discrepancies
will disappear.
NOT EVIDENCE FOR THE MEANING OF WORDS
In seeking to fix the exact significance of a word, only its literal
usage should be consulted. Here alone the actual meaning appears. The figurative is a
departure from it. Therefore, in the Keyword Concordance, many of the figurative
expressions have been indicated. They should not be included in the evidence when fixing a
word's precise signification. This does not apply equally to all figures. The context
within a parable shows the meaning of a word, for the parts of a parable may be literal
with respect to one another. Thus we may learn much of darnel in the parable of the
sowing, even though the darnel itself is a figure of hypocritical disciples.
The literal meaning of a word is one and constant: the figurative usage
is diverse and variable. The fact that lexicographers as a rule fail to distinguish the
meaning of a word from the usage has made their definitions indefinite, and has led to
much confusion. A word has been given many "meanings" by incorporating its
figurative usages. As these may vary much, the true significance of the word becomes
obscure. It is important that we give each word a constant literal meaning, but it is
equally necessary that we do not apply its figurative usage in every passage.
FIGURES IN TRANSLATION
As the dangers of a close rendering arise largely from figures of
speech, or rather from the lack of a proper observance of them, it was deemed wise to
determine, list and analyze the principal figures, especially those which affect
translation, and thus safeguard the concordant method in this direction. Hence this
Concordance, listing most of the occurences of each figure, was prepared.
THE ADVANTAGE OF A CONCORDANCE
Just as, in seeking the meaning of a word in the Scriptures, we should
examine all of its literal occurrences, so the best method of fixing the force of any
figure is to investigate all of its examples in Holy Writ. Figures of Speech Used in the Bible by E. W. Bullinger,
D.D., (Grand Rapids, MI 49506: Baker Book House) has proved to be a valuable tool in
preparing the following Concordance of Figures. The principal advantage of the following
Concordance is that it brings most of the figures of the same kind together, so that each
may be interpreted consistently with all the rest.
The concordance of words used literally will show that each one has but
one central significance, but a Concordance of Figures will show that each one may also be
used for different, and even opposite, ideas.
COMPOUND OR COMPLEX FIGURES
Frequently a single expression is figurative in two or more directions.
Thus, in the sentence, "Heaven is God's throne," the word "throne" is a Metaphor, for heaven is not only said to be like, but
to be a throne. But a throne, in this case, is not merely the piece of furniture,
but stands for the idea of rule. So it is also an Association (Metonyrny). As it
ascribes what is human to the Deity, it is also a Condescension
(Anthropopatheia). Only the principal figure may be indicated in such cases.
Many figures may be classified under two or more headings, when they
possess characteristics of each. Thus Parallelisms may be, in some degree, Repetitions,
yet the figure lies rather in the arrangement of the words and sentences. Hard
and fast lines cannot always be drawn.
FADED FIGURES
Many figures have been used so much that it seems far-fetched to mark
them as such. Thus, rise, as applied to the dead, is a clear figure, yet it is
used commonly in this sense, hence it is not marked. The boundary between faded and
unfaded figures is very vague, so we have sought to be practical and helpful, even though
it was not always possible to be consistent.
LIMITATIONS OF FIGURES
Figures, especially those of likeness, must be strictly limited to the
point or points, of contact, for it is axiomatic that there is unlikeness in all
other particulars. They must never be used as if they were true in fact. Therefore it is
unwise to use figures of speech as a basis of reasoning, for the points of contact are
limited to those stated or apparent, and they may not be extended to other relations. Thus
when Paul speaks of betrothing the Garinthians to Christ, he refers only to their
singleness and purity. The figure does not include any other aspect of
betrothal or refer in any way to marriage. It is confusing to connect it with
such figures.
NOMENCLATURE
A name should be an index of that which it represents. The names
usually given to figures of speech have been so technical and foreign that they have made
the subject unnecessarily difficult and distasteful. Hence we will give a new English name
to such as need one. Instead of calling the commonest of figures a Hypocatastasis
we will define it by the name Implication, and, as it occurs so frequently,
simply mark it with F for
Figure. The common, well-known names, as Simile, Metaphor, Parable, etc., will be retained.
CLASSIFICATION
Figures may be classified in many different ways, but they are so
lacking in definite boundaries, and so often overlay each other, that no classification is
altogether ideal. Hence we have chosen the course which seems most practical and helpful,
and have divide them into small groups according to their salient characteristics, and
have put them in the order of their importance. Most figures are figures of likeness,
hence these lead the rest, followed by those of association. The groups are as
follows: Likeness, Association, Arrangements Omission, Addition, Repetition, Grammatical
Substitution, Variance, Rhetoric.
FIGURES OF LIKENESS
Likeness, or comparison, is the most frequent form in which figures are
found. Though there are only a few varieties which are based on similarity, most figures,
by far, belong to this class. In fact, one of these, Implication, is so
frequently found, that we will simply call it a "figure."
The point to press in figures of likeness is that they depend upon unlikeness.
Two objects must be unlike in the main, and similar in one or more particulars,
in order to be a figure. Under no circumstances must the likeness be allowed to go beyond
these particulars, or the figure is violated. So also, in parables the salient points
alone are to be pressed, for much detail may be included which merely makes the picture
complete.
All figures of likeness may be expanded into a simile, by adding the
formula "is like." This is one of the simplest tests to determine whether it is
included in this class. The simile actually states that one thing is like or similar to
another in some respect, hence no notation is needed to call attention to it, as "
All flesh is like grass." The metaphor is bolder. It leaves the
realm of fact, and says that one is another, as "All flesh is grass."
Still more striking is the implication, which takes the likeness for granted, as
"the grass withers." The parable goes further and makes a whole
statement, including action, as "Physician, cure yourself." It will be seen
that these figures are, in one sense, figures of omission, for they are abbreviated
similes.
Especially in parables, there are many words which seem to be quite
literal in their context, but become figurative because the context is a comparison. They
are marked with a P for Parable
and a V for Vision in
the KEYWORD CONCORDANCE.
The figures of likeness consist of Simile, Metaphor, Implication,
Parable. Allegory, Vision, Sign, Type, Shadow, Example, Image, Impersonation (or
Personification), and Condescension.
SIMILE
It is only when two dissimilar objects are said to be alike in
some particular that the simile becomes a figure of speech. Even then, it is true in fact,
hence it is only partly over the border line of figures. But, as it is the essence of all
figures of likeness, into which they all may be expanded, we will include it in our
classification.
METAPHOR
The metaphor is an abbreviated simile. It omits the statement of
likeness, hence it is not true as to fact, but forceful as to feeling. Instead of saying
that one thing is like another, it boldly insists that it is that other.
The substantive verb is usually present, as, "This is My body." Literal facts
may be stated with or without the verb, but this figure calls for its presence. It is
indicated by the tiny superior M
before the verse reference.
IMPLICATION(FIGURE)
By far the most frequent of figures is the Implication
(Hypocatastasis), which, on this account, we designate simply by the letter F
for Figure. Not only does it omit the statement of likeness (which the Simile has) but it
also does without the verb is (which the Metaphor has), simply taking the
likeness for granted. The similarity is implied, hence the name Implication.
PARABLE
A likeness developed into action is called a Parable. In Greek
this is literally that which is cast beside, a parallel. In it, one set of
circumstances in the physical sphere is likened to a spiritual counterpart, The
resemblance extends to action, and must include a verb used figuratively. To put
it popularly, a parable is a moving picture, while a metaphor or implication is a
still one. Every figurative action seems to have the making of a parable. Absolute
boundaries cannot be drawn, nor are they vital. There should be a figurative object,
combined with a figurative action.
The shortest named parable in the Scriptures is: "Physician, cure
yourself!" (Luke 4:23). Here both the noun and the verb are figurative. Our Lord is
not merely compared to a physician, but to one who attends his own case. The action of the
physician is added to the likeness. According to this inspired example, no lengthy story
is needed to constitute a scriptural parable. Hence there are many more of these than is
usually supposed. The verb and noun which make the parable must be literal in regard to
each other. A physician cures. But a case such as "put on... the old
humanity" (Eph. 4:22) is not a parable, though both noun and verb are figurative, for
we strip off clothing, not humanity. Perhaps the most extensive parable in the Scriptures
is the tabernacle and its ritual (Heb. 9:9).
The same figure must be apparent in both the noun and the verb. "Physician, deal with your own misfortune!" would not be a parable, as the figure is
lacking in the verb. Neither would "you should cure yourself" do, for the
corresponding figure in the noun is lacking.
Many parables are compound, that is, consisting of more than one
picture, sometimes in a parallel, as make ready a road and straighten a
highway (Matt. 3:3). Sometimes it is progressive, as, scour a threshing floor,
gather into a barn, burn the chaff (Matt. 3:12), or complex, with more
than one verb, as, salt made insipid, cast out, trampled (Matt. 5:13).
As the function of a parable is to make a physical parallel for
metaphysical truth, it need not be based on actual facts. Culling grapes from thorns
(Matt. 7:16) cannot be a real occurrence. It is not likely that someone paid the same
wages for one hour's work as for a whole day (Matt. 20:1-16). The physical must be
accommodated to the truth to be paralleled, for this, and not the story told, is where the
point lies.
ALLEGORY
The only Allegory mentioned in the Scriptures makes an actual,
historical occurrence represent truth in another realm. Two women stand for two covenants
(Gal. 4:22-28). This seems to be the real distinguishing feature of the allegory: Actual
persons in their everyday lives set forth truth in the spiritual sphere.
VISION
In a Vision the eyes behold what is outside the range of human
sight or has no real existence at the time. While not an actual figure of speech, it
often, like the parable, is often filled with implications which used so constantly that
they become symbols. Thus, in the Revelation, the throne stands for rule and the temple
for religion, the Lambkin for the sacrifice of Christ and the wild beast for the opposing
powers.
The Principal Visions
The transformation, Matt. 17:1-5, Mark 9:2-7, Luke 9:29-35; the flaming
thorn bush, Acts 7:30-34; Ananias and Saul, Acts 9:10-16; messenger of God to Cornelius,
Acts 10:3-6; Peter, sheet let down from heaven, Acts 10:11-16, 11:5-10; man of Macedonia
to Paul, Acts 16:9; Paul at Corinth, Acts 18:9, 10; Son of Mankind, amidst lampstands,
Rev. 1:10-20; throne, scroll, Lambkin, Rev. 4:1-5:14; seals opened, Rev. 6:1-17; the
144,000, 7:1-8; vast throng, Rev. 7:9-17; seven trumpets, Rev. 8:1-9:21; seven thunders,
Rev. 10:1-7; the tiny scroll, Rev. 10:8-11; the two witnesses, Rev. 11:1-13; seventh
trumpet, Rev. 11:15-18;the temple open, Rew. 11:19-13:18; the 144,000, Rev. 14:1-13; the
harvest, Rev. 14:14-16; the vintage, Rev. 14:17-20; the seven calamities, Rev. 15:1-16:21;
the unfaithful woman and the scarlet wild beast. Rev. 17:1-18; Babylon, Rev. 18:1-19:5;
marriage of the Lambkin, Rev. 19:6-10: Gods great dinner, Rev. 19:11-21; the thousand
years, Rev. 20:1-10; the great White Throne, Rev. 20:11-15; the new Jerusalem, Rev.
21:1-23; the river of life, Rev. 22:1-3.
SIGN
A Sign is an actual occurrence which carries with it a
significance not apparent on the surface. It may be a simple act, as the kiss of Judas
(Matt. 26:48), which signified Who Christ was, or it may include several objects and
considerable circumstance, as the woman and the male son (Rev. 12:5). A salutation by
Paul's own hand was a sign of the genuineness of an epistle from him. Circumcision
was the sign of God's covenant Our Lord did many clear signs in order to show that He
is the promised Messiah. Almost every miracle of healing set forth His restoration of
Israel in the Kingdom to come. Almost all of His acts are significant of the future.
Signs in the Scriptures
Jonah the prophet, Matt. 12:39, 16:4, Luke 11:29, 30; the Son of
Mankind, Matt. 24:30, Luke 11:30; Judas' kiss, Matt. 26:48; casting out demons,
talking new languages, picking up serpents, drinking deadly drink... no harm, placing
hands on ailing... well, Mark 16:17, 18; Babe in manger, Luke 2:12; in the sun, moon,
constellations, on earth, pressure of nations in perplexity, resounding of the sea and
shaking, chilling of men from fear, Luke 21:25, 26; wedding at Cana, John 2:1-11; raze and
raise temple, John 2:19; healing the courtier's son, John 4:46-54; feeding the five
thousand, John 6:10-14; raising Lazarus, John 11:23-44; healing the lame man, Acts 3:2-10;
unclean spirits come out, paralytics and lame are cured, Acts 8:7; healing paralyzed
Eneas, Acts 9:33-34; Dorcas brought back to life, Acts 9:36-41; lame man of Lystra cured,
Acts 14:8-10; circumcision, Rom. 4:11; languages for a sign, I Cor. 14:22; Paul's
hand (writing), 2 Thes. 3:17; woman, Rev. 12:l; dragon, Rev. 12:3-6; messengers with
calamities, Rev. 15:1.
TYPE
A Type is literally the impression left when using a die, as
the print of the nails (John 20:25), the pattern which is to be
followed. It is, therefore, a likeness which extends to details. The only one mentioned in
the Scriptures is that of Adam who corresponds with Christ (Rom. 5:12-21). The tabernacle
was made to correspond with the type or model shown Moses in the mount (Heb.
8:5).
An antitype, in Greek, is not the reality which is typified,
but is, like the type, a representation of the true, as the holy places
made by hands (Heb. 9:24) and baptism (1 Pet. 3:21).
SHADOW
Shadow is the apt scriptural term for dark representations of
unseen or future realities. The offerings under the law were a shadow of the divine
service of the celestials. The law had a shadow of the impending good (Heb. 10:1). The
instructions regarding food, drink, festivals, new moons and sabbaths foreshadow what is
still impending (Col. 2:16-17).
EXAMPLE
The Example (Exemplum) is another aspect of the Shadow,
for under the law of Moses, the offerings were both an example and a shadow of the divine
service of the celestials (Heb. 8:5). The tabernacle and its vessels are examples of what
is in the heavens (Heb. 9:23).
IMAGE
An Image is a closer likeness than a shadow, being a visible
delineation of that which is invisible or absent, Christ is the Image of God
(Col. 1:15). Caesar's image was on the currency (Matt. 22:20). The image
of the wild beast will be his effigy.
IMPERSONATION ( or PERSONIFICATION)
Things are spoken of as persons in this figure, As the letter P
is needed to indicate a Parable, we have changed Personification to Impersonation and use
the letter I to mark it.
CONDESCENSION
When God is spoken of as if He were human, or were a part of His
creation, this is done in His condescension, so that He may reveal Himself in terms within
the range of human perception.
THE DIMINUTIVE
That which is small in size awakens in us a variety of feelings,
principally affection or contempt. This may arise partly from association also. Thus, in
some languages, the diminutive ending is freely used to express regard. In the Scriptures,
we have one special instance in which it is used in a derogatory sense. The "little
women, heaped with sins," would hardly be confined to those small of stature. Yet
here there is a strong likelihood that it was a term of affection at first, and only took
on a derogatory sense by association.
This article © 1970 Concordant Publishing Concern. From The Keyword Concordance, Companion Volume to the Concordant Literal New Testament. Used by permission.
This page layout Copyright © 2002 Peter Wade. This article appears on the site: http://www.peterwade.com/. Would you like your own copy of books by Peter Wade and other authors? Go to our Catalog. | |
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